Difference between PN junction diode and schottky diode

As compared to the P-N junction diode, a Schottky diode has :

• Low cut in voltage.
• High reverse leakage current.
• The reverse breakdown voltage is very low compared to the P-N junction diode.

Some more comparisons between the Schottky diode and the P-N junction diode are given below

Schottky diode :

• A Schottky diode is a unipolar device whereas is a bipolar device.
• A Schottky diode is a high switching speed while a P-N junction diode's switching speed is limited.
• The Schottky diode has turned on a voltage of around 0.2 V while the P-N junction diode has turned on a voltage of around 0.7 V.
• Schottky diode depletion region is absent while the P-N junction diode depletion region is present.
• The Schottky diode has a high operating frequency while the P-N junction diode low operating frequency.
• Schottky diode electron is the majority carriers in both metal and semiconductor while P-N junction diode electrons are the majority carrier in the n-region and holes are the majority carrier in the p region.
• In the Schottky diode, the turn-on voltage is very low while the P-N junction diode turns on voltage is high compared to the Schottky diode.
• Schottky diode forward current due to  the ionic emission (majority carrier transport) while P-N junction diode  forward current due to diffusion current 
• Schottky diode No recombination on the depletion layer while P-N junction diode recombination on the depletion layer.

Explore more information:

1. difference between PIN photodiode and Avalanche photodiode
2. Difference between co-channel interference and adjacent channel interference 
3. Difference between cell splitting and cell sectoring 
4. Difference between photodiode and phototransistor
5. Difference between photodiode and LED
6. Difference between LED and Laser diode
7. Diode vs zener diode
8. Difference Between Schottky and Frenkel Defect
9. Difference Between Zener and Avalanche Breakdown
10. Difference between LCD and LED

Advantages and disadvantages of cell splitting

Advantages of cell splitting :

• It improves the S/N ratio
• It reduces interference which increases capacity
• It reduces the cluster size
• System capacity gradually expands as demand

Disadvantages of cell splitting :

• Handoff is more frequent
• Channel assignment becomes difficult
• All cell are not simultaneously so special care have to be taken for proper allocation of the problem

Explore more information:

1. Advantages and Disadvantages of cell sectoring

Advantages and disadvantages of cell sectoring

Advantages of cell sectoring :

• Better S/I ratio
• Reduces interference
• Increases capacity
• Reduces cluster size
• More freedom in assigning channel

Disadvantages of cell sectoring :

• Increases number of antennas per base station
• A decrease in trunk efficiency
• Loss of traffic
• Increased number of handoffs

Explore more information:

1. Advantages and disadvantages of cell splitting

Umbrella cell approach in mobile communication

The cell with low traffic speed is called as micro-cells and large high-speed traffic called macro-cells.

A hexagonal cell method is one of the closest approximation of a circle device. It is being typically used for the system.

The smaller cell is grouped and assumed to be under a large cell. This method called as an umbrella cell concept.

It can be used to provide a large area to high-speed users while small area coverage to users that travel at low speeds.

Some advantages of using an umbrella cell concept in cellular technology 

• Umbrella cell provides a large coverage area to high-speed users.
• Minimize the number of handoff for high-speed users.
• Speed estimation can be performed by slop of short term average calculation of receive power.
• If a high-speed user in large umbrella cell is near the base station and if its velocity is decreasing then the BS stands for  can decide whether to hand the user into the co-located micro-cell without the intervention of the mobile switching center (MSC stands for).
• Provide additional micro-cell channel for pedestrian user.

Umbrella cell concept

Cell splitting

Cell splitting is a method of subdividing cell into a smaller sized cell. In this cell, the parent cell that was originally congested is called as macro cells and the smaller cell called microcells.

The most important benefits for cell splitting is that it increases the cellular capacity of the system where the frequency reuse techniques can be efficiently implemented

Each microcell has a base station antenna. The radius of the microcell is half a radius of the macro cell.

In cell splitting, if the increased number of a cell will increase the number of clusters over the coverage area and will increases the number of channel per unit area so that the capacity of the system is increased.

For the new cell to be a smaller size, the transmitted power must be decreased. in this process, the large macro cell is dedicated to high traffic. In macrocell, the number of hands offs will be less than and also have the call process can be smoothly carried in larger cells.

While in Cell sectoring is one another method to increase the capacity of the system. It keeps the radius of the cell constant and  also decreases the co-channel reuse ratio D/R to reduce the cluster size N, so it is a major difference between them 

This post also gives some advantages and disadvantages of cell splitting to know more details about this concept.

Advantages of cell splitting :

• It improves the S/N ratio.
• It reduces interference which increases capacity.
• It reduces the cluster size.
• System capacity gradually expands as demand.

Disadvantages of cell splitting :

• Handoff is more frequent.
• Channel assignment becomes difficult.
• All cell are not simultaneously so special care have to be taken for proper allocation of the problem.

Cell sectoring

Cell sectoring is replacing with an omnidirectional type of the antenna at the base station by several types of a directional antenna. It is done mainly to reduce factors such as a co-channel interface. 

Some important points on cell sectoring :

• Cell sectoring is another method to increase capacity. It keeps the radius of the cell constant and decreases the co-channel reuse ratio D/R to reduce the cluster size N. 
• Cell sectoring is a method of decreasing the co-channel interference and enhancing system performance by using a directional antenna.
• The size of clusters in a particular service area can be reduced because the cell sectoring increases the signal to interference ratio (SIR).
• So in cell sectoring process enhancing the system performance by using a directional antenna and reducing the co-channel interference value. here the reduction in the co-channel interference is dependent on the amount of sectoring used.
• So here in cell sectoring process generally cell divided in 120 ^{₀  &}  60 ^₀ sectors.
• A cell is in sectoring is 120 ^₀  then hexagon cell consists of three sectors and if the sector is 60 ^₀  then the hexagonal type cell consists of six sectors. 
• The single to noise ratio improvement allows the cellular provider to decreases the cluster size N in order to improve the frequency reuse and thus, the system capacity. 

120 ^₀  and 60 ^₀  sectoring

Now let us talk about some advantages and disadvantages of cell splitting to know more details about this concept.

Advantages of cell sectoring :

• Better S/I ratio.
• Reduces interference.
• Increases capacity.
• Reduces cluster size.
• More freedom in assigning a channel

Disadvantages of cell sectoring :

• Increases number of antennas per base station.
• A decrease in trunk efficiency.
• Loss of traffic.
• Increased number of handoffs.

Hexagonal geometry cell

Having studied the cellular topology and the concept of employing cellular architecture to increases the cellular capacity, serve subscriber demand so we will consider to characteristics the interference in a cellular topology.

A hexagonal cell is one of the closest approximation of a circle to shown in the figure. It is being typically used for the system.

So now let us talk about why we have to choose hexagonal shape summarized below :

• Basically hexagonal is close approximation the circular radiation pattern in an omnidirectional base station antenna.
• Hexagonal allow easy and manageable analysis in a cellular system.
• In a circular pattern, adjacent circles can have gaps in between or can create overlapping regions.
• Hexagonal geometry is used then only less number of a cell can cover the entire market.

Hexagonal cell

Application of schottky diode

Schottky barrier diodes are mainly used in high power applications as a rectifier because of their high current density and low forward voltage drop characteristic less power is wasted and so they have widely used in some applications. Let us check the applications of Schottky diode one by one below.

Application Schottky diode :

• Voltage clamping and clipping circuit.
• Low power TTL logic.
• As a switching device.
• Rectify high-frequency signals.
• 
  

Rf mixer and detector diode

This diode can be also used Rf mixer and a detector diode. This diode consists of its radio frequency function owing to its switching speed at the highest level of top frequency capability. 

Solar cell application

The solar cells are usually linked to the batteries that are rechargeable, and most batteries with lead-acid since power supply must necessary round the clock. This solar cell would not support the applied charge in reverse and thus a diode would be used in a proportional pattern of the solar cells.

The rectifier in power supply

 

• Low voltage, high current application.
• 
  
• Used in logic circuits. 
• Used in AC to DC converter.
• Used in a radar system.

Power rectifier:

The Schottky barrier diodes also have functions with high power as rectifiers. The high density of current and voltage drop with low forward shows that the wastage of power is the least then the normal PN junction diodes

Applications of Schottky Diode

Schottky diodes have been useful for the industry of electronics that has spotted many applications in diode rectifier because of its unique properties. Here are some of the major areas where it is widely used.

.

Power OR circuits:

This diode would be useful for functions where two different power supplies drive a load like in battery supply. It is important that the power coming from supply should not mix with the others.

Solar Cell Applications:

• Schottky diodes are used as general-purpose rectifiers.
• Schottky diodes are used in radio frequency (RF) applications.
• Schottky diodes are widely used in power supplies.
• Schottky diodes are used to detect signals.
• Schottky diodes are used in logic circuits.

Difference between cell splitting and cell sectoring

Cell splitting is a method of subdividing cell into the smaller sized cell. The parent cell that was originally congested is called as macro cells and the smaller cell called as microcells.

Cell sectoring is another method to increase capacity. It keeps the radius of the cell constant and decreases the co-channel reuse ratio D/R to reduce the cluster size N. 

Let we check the difference between cell splitting and cell sectoring : 

Cell splitting :

• Cell splitting is a method of subdividing cell into the smaller sized cell. The parent cell that was originally congested is called as macro cells and the smaller cell called as microcells.
• The cell is divided into a smaller cell.
• In cell splitting the transmit power must be reduced to maintain the S/I ratio.
• The radius of the cell is decreased and the co-channel reuse ratio D/R is kept constant to improve the capacity.
• In cell splitting large macro-cell are dedicated to high-speed traffic. The reason for a number of handoffs will be less and call progress can be smoothly done.

Cell sectoring :

• Cell sectoring is a method of decreasing the co-channel interference and enhancing system performance by using a directional antenna.
• The cell is divided into 120^₀ and 60^₀ sectors.
• Cell sectoring improves the S/I ratio using a directional antenna.
• The radius of the cell is kept constant and the co-channel reuse ratio D/R is decreased to improve the capacity.
• Cell sectoring decreases the coverage area of a group of channels and increases the number of handoffs.

What is interference in communication

The performance of a cellular system is highly affected by interference. Interference is the main problem in increasing capacity. basically, there are two types of interference in the cellular system.

1. Co-channel interference
2. Adjacent channel interference

Co-channel interference :

In the frequency reuse method, several cells use the same set of frequencies in the given service area. The cell using the same set of the channel are called co-channel cells. The interference between signals from these cells is called as co-channel interference.

While the order to reduce co-channel interference, the co-channel interference cell are actually separated by the smallest distance to provide isolation.

The minimum distance that allows the same frequency to be reused depends on factor like a number of co-channel cells near the center cell.

Now let us discuss how to find frequency reuse distance D  in co-channel interference  

D= √3N  R 

N =  i²  + i j +  j²

Here we have to calculate different values of D  for given values of N.

D=3 , N=3 (i=1, j=1)

D=4.58R, N=7(i=1, j=2)

D= 6R, N=12(i=2, j=2)

If all the cell transmits the same power, then N increases and the frequency reuse distance D increases. This increases D reduces the probability interference can occur.

The ratio D/R is called the co-channel reuse ratio. It is expressed as,

                                Q = D/R = √3N

A small value of Q provides large capacity as the cluster size N is small. A large Q, i.e a large value of D/R indicates that the spatial separation between the co-channel cell relative to the coverage distance of a cell is increased.

   

Adjacent channel interference :       

While the interference resulting from the channel that is adjacent in frequency to the desired channel is called adjacent channel interference.

If the user that is using an adjacent channel and is transmitting in close range to subscriber receiver then while the receiver tries to receive a base station on the desired channel the problem can be critical. It is called the near-far effect.

Be proper filter and channel assignment the adjacent channel interference can be minimized. As each cell is given only part of the available channels a cell needs to assign channels that are adjacent in frequency.

In adjacent channel interference is frequency reuse when the frequency reuse is high there are more chances for interference because of neighboring channels and because of separation concept. 

Let us now talk about the basic source of interference :

• Any other mobile in the same cell.
• A call in always progress in the neighboring of a cell.
• In most of the other base station operating on the same frequency.
• Any non-cellular system which leaks energy into the cellular frequency band.

Channel assignment strategies

The channel assignment strategies can be classified as fixed or dynamic depending on the system performance in managing cell calls when a mobile user is handed off from one cell to another.

Fixed channel assignment : 

In the fixed channel assignment method each cell is assigned a predetermined set of voice channel.

Any effort that is done to call a number within the cell can be serviced by the unused channels in that particular cell.

In case if all the channels in that cell are used, then the cell is blocked. such a situation the subscriber does not  get service.

Borrowing techniques are used from an adjacent cell if all of its channels are occupied. This method is called as borrowing strategies.

Dynamic channel assignment :

In dynamic channel assignment strategy there is no permanent allocation of channels. Every time a call request is done, the BS full form (base station) requests a channel from MSC full form is mobile switching center.

Mobile switching center only allocates the channel after verifying that the channel is not currently in use in the cell or any other cell that comes within the minimum restricted distance of cellular frequency reuse to avoid co channel interference.

Dynamic channel assignment strategy reduces the probability of blocking and increases the trunking capacity of the system. These strategies need MSC to collect real time data. 

Difference between co-channel interference and adjacent channel interference

The performance of the cellular system is highly affected by interference. Interference is the main problem in increasing capacity. basically, there are two types of interference in the cellular system called : (i) Co-channel interference (ii) adjacent channel interference. 

Let us now talk about the difference between co-channel interference and adjacent channel interference to know more details about Interference.

Co-channel interference :

• The interference between the signal from co-channel cells is called co-channel interference.
• Co-channel interference mainly occurs on the same channel.
• Co-channel cells are physically separated by a minimum distance to reduce co-channel interface and also have to provide sufficient isolation.
• A large co-channel reuse ratio improves the transmission quality because of the smaller level of co-channel interference. 

Adjacent channel interference :

• The interference that results from the signal that is adjacent in frequency to the required signal called adjacent channel interference.
• Adjacent channel interference occurs from a different channel.
• By proper filter and channel assignment strategy, the adjacent channel interference can be minimized.
• Another cause for adjacent channel interference is frequency reuse and when the frequency reuse is high there are more chances for interference because of operation.

Cellular frequency reuse

What is cellular frequency reuse ?

A group of radio channel is allocated a separate circular base station to be used within a small geographic area called cell.

The design method of selecting and allocating channel groups for all cellular base station within a system called as frequency reuse.

Here we have to use hexagonal geometry is used in the design of cellular system.

we have to better to understand frequency reuse concept in cellular system having S duplex channel then, and if n channel is less than S (n<S) and is S channel are divided among N cell into unique and disjoint channel groups with each having the same number of channels, then the total number of available radio channel is define as : 

            S = nN

Total number of duplex channel  C can be defined as :      

             C = mnN = mS

The capacity of cellular system is directly proportional to the number of times a cluster repeated in a fixed service area, the factor N is called as the cluster size 

For maximum capacity, the smallest possible value of N is desired. 1/N is called as the frequency reuse factor as each cell within the cluster is only assigned 1/N times of the total available channels.

The geometry of hexagon is such that the number of cell per cluster N can have values that satisfy the equation, 

N = i² +ij + j²

Where i and j are non negative integer
So here we have to calculate the possible cluster size above this equation :
i=1, j=1 so N=3
i=2, j=0 so N=4
i=2, j=2 so N=12
i=2, j=3 so N=19

Basic cellular system

Before we learn about the cellular system first let we check it out what is the cellular system. In a cellular system, replaced the single high power transmitter with many numbers of low power transmitters (Base station) each signal providing coverage to only a fraction of service area (Cell). Each base station is allocated a portion of the total number of channels and nearby BS full form (base station) are assigned different group of channels. Basically hexagonal is close approximation the circular radiation pattern in an omnidirectional base station antenna.

A basic cellular system can be comprised of three units :

1. Mobile unit
2. Cell site
3. A mobile telephone switching office

• Mobile unit :

It comprises a control unit, a transceiver, and an antenna system.

• Cell site :

It is an interface between the mobile unit and the full form of MTSO. It comprises a control unit, antennas, power plant, and data terminals.

• Mobile telephone switching office :

It is the central co-coordinating unit for all cell sites. It comprises of the cellular processor and the cellular switch.

One of the most important points is that the MTSO is responsible for controlling the call processing operation and handling the billing activities of the subscriber.

In general cellular, the switch can be analog or digital form. It can connect the mobile subscriber to the other mobile subscriber to the nationwide telephone network.

Cellular system

What is cellular system

In a cellular system, replaced the single high power transmitter with any numbers of low power transmitters (Base station) each signal providing coverage to only a fraction of service area (Cell). Each base station is allocated a portion of the total number of channels and the nearby base station (BS) are assigned different group of channels.

The neighboring base station is assigned a different group of channels that the interference between the base station is minimized in the cellular group.

In a Basic cellular system, replaced the single high power transmitter with any number of low power transmitters (Base station) each signal providing coverage to only a fraction of service area (Cell).

Some advantages and disadvantages of the cellular system :

Advantages of the cellular system :

• High capacity
• Reduced in  process
• Less transmission power
• Reduced set up times
• It reduced the interference which increases the system capacity
• It improved the S/N ratio
• Reduced the cluster size
• More robust against the failure of single components

Disadvantages of the cellular system :

• Handover is needed 
• Good infrastructure needed
• Frequency planning should be good
• Increases the number of an antenna in each base station 

Quantum efficiency of photo detector

In photo detector quantum efficiency is defined as the number of electron hall pair generated per incident photon of energy hv and is given as ȵ

ȵ = Number of electron hall pair generated /  number of incident photons

    =   I_P / q  /  P_in / hv

 I_P = Average photo current

 P_in = Average optical power incident on photo detector

Absorption coefficient of material determines the quantum efficiency. Quantum efficiency ȵ < 1 as all photons incident will not generate e-h pair. It is normally expressed in percentage.

For example,

On an GaAs photo detector 

Number of photon emitted = 6  × 10⁶ 

Average e-h pair generated = 5.4 × 10⁶

ȵ  = 5.4 × 10⁶  / 6  × 10⁶ 

      = 0.9

      

      = 90%

Cut-off wavelength of photo detector

A cut of the wavelength of any photodetector can be defined as if any particular semiconductor can be absorbed photon over a limited wavelength range. The highest bandwidth is known as cut-off wavelength.

Cut off wavelength is determined by band gap energy Eg of a material.

      Cut of wavelength = hc / E_g  = 1.24 / E_g  

Where,

E_g  = Electron volts (eV) 

A typical value of cut of wavelength for silicon is 1.06 micrometer and germanium is 1.6 micrometer.

For example :

In PIN photo diode  E_g  = 1.43 eV, hc = 1.24 , find cut of wavelength = ?

 Cut of wavelength = hc / E_g  = 1.24 / E_g

                                                

                                               _{= 1.24 / 1.43}

                    

                                                _{= 0.867 micro meter}

                       

                                                _{= 867 nm}

WiMAX features

A wireless broadband solution that offers various features with a lot of flexibility in terms of potential service offering is WiMAX technology.

• WiMAX support multipath.
• IT provide up to 50 km of service area range.
• WiMAX uses OFDM technology.
• WiMAX support TDD and FDD.
• WiMAX offer modulation and error correction.
• Adaptive modulation enables while using WiMAX system to optimize the throughput based on the propagation conditions.
• Very scalable bandwidth and high-speed data rate.
• Flexible and dynamic per-user resource allocation.
• Support for advanced antenna techniques.
• Support for mobility.
• Portable internet usage.
• Quality of service support.
• It is IP based architecture.
• WiMAX is always best connected.

WiMAX architecture

As we know that the WiMAX system consists of two major parts: Main part is to be (i) A WiMAX base station (ii) And a WiMAX receiver.

Let us take a look at the WiMAX architecture to shown in the figure.

A WiMAX base station :

WiMAX base station is very similar to accessing a wireless access point in a Wi-Fi network, but the coverage is greater than to another network.

WiMAX base station can provide a very large area up to a radius of around 6 miles. A WiMAX base station(BS) consists of indoor electronics and as we know that WiMAX tower similar look like to a cell phone tower.

Each base station(BS) can provide wireless coverage over an area called a cell. The WiMAX base station can also use a multiple antennas point in a different direction. This area covered by one antenna signal called sector.

The uplink and also a downlink channel are shared among the many subscriber stations in a given sector. WiMAX can also have support bursty data and also provide high-quality telephone and high volume multimedia.

The uplink and also for downlink channels are divided into slots of equal size. A WiMAX frame takes multiple slots. Different frame takes a different number of slots. The downlink channel easy to subdivide into connection as only the base station sends on that channel.

A WiMAX receiver : 

A WiMAX receiver side may have a separate antenna or could be a stand-alone box or a PCMCIA card present in your laptop or any other device. It is called as customer premise equipment (CPE).

In most of the cases, a simple plug and play terminal, similar to a DSL modem provides connectivity as shown in the figure given below.

For customer located several kilometers from the WiMAX base station, a self-install outdoor. The antenna may be required to improve transmission quality. 

For customer requesting a voice in addition to broadband services, specific CPE will allow the connection of standard or VoIP phones device.

WiMAX architecture

WiMAX standard

We all know that the WiMAX system has been supporting IEEE 802.16, This standard is called IEEE  called 802.16, it was associated with 802.16a / REV d / e standard.

These standards were issued by IEEE standard 802.16 into the subgroup called  (802.16a/REV d/e) standard that originally covered the Wireless local loop (WLL) technologies with radio spectrum from 10 to 66 GHz. Recently were extended below 10 GHz.

In the year of January 2003, the approved IEEE standard 802.16a as an amendment to IEEE  standard 802.16 defining line of sight capability.

In the year of 2004, the IEEE 802.16 standard Revd was introduced to support basically indoor customer premises equipment through additional radio capabilities like antenna beamforming and OFDM sub channeling.

In the year of 2005, an IEEE standard 802.16e variant was developed for supporting mobility device.

Following are the details of various IEEE 802.16 standard related to WiMAX system listed below.

1. 802.16

• Spectrum - 10-66 GHz
• Configuration  - Line of sight
• Mobility - Fixed
• Channel bandwidth - 20,25 MHz
• Typical cell radius - 1-3 miles
• Modulation - QPSK-16 QAM 64 QAM
• Completion  - December 2001

2. 802.16a

• Spectrum - 2-11 GHz
• Configuration  - Non-Line of sight
• Mobility - Fixed
• Channel bandwidth - Selectable, 1.25-20 MHz
• Typical cell radius - 3-5 miles
• Modulation - total number of 256 subscribers, OFDM using QPSK, 16 QAM, 64 QAM, 256-QAM
• Completion - January 2003

3. 802.16e

• Spectrum - <6 GHz
• Configuration  - Non-Line of sight
• Mobility - Fixed
• Channel bandwidth - 5 MHz planned
• Typical cell radius - 1-3 miles
• Modulation - total number of 256 subscribers, OFDM using QPSK16, QAM, 64 QAM, 256-QAM
• Completion - 2nd half of 2005