RTD application

Here this some application of RTD listed below:

Automotive:
  • Automatic climate control
  • Audio amplifier
  • Emission control
  • Home weather stations
  • Coolant sensors
  • Electric coolant fan temperature control
  • Engine block temperature sensors
  • Engine oil temperature sensors
  • Oil level sensors
  • Transmission oil temperature sensors
  • Outside air temperature sensor
  • Water level sensors
  • Intake air temperature sensors
Computer:
  • Power supplies 
  • UPS system
Communication and Instrumentation:
  • Cellular telephones
  • Amplifier over temperature sensing
  • Copper coil winding temperature compensation
  • Oscillator temperature compensation
  • Rechargeable battery packs
  • Transistor gain stabilization
  • Transistor temperature compensation
Consumer electronics:
  • Toasters
  • Pool and spa  control
  • Oven temperature control
  • Rechargeable battery packs
  • Small appliance control
  • Thermostats
  • Fire detectors
  • Clothes dryers
  • Cellular telephones
  • Air conditioners
  • Washing machines
  • Refrigeable battery packs
  • Electric water heaters
  • Electric thermometers
  • Electric blanket controls
  • Computer power supplies
  • Dishwasher
Food handling and processing:
  • Coffee makers
  • Deep fryers
  • Fast food processing
  • Perishable shipping
  • Thermometers for  use in food preparation
  • Temperature controlled food storage systems 
Industrial electronics:
  • Crystal ovens
  • Commercial vending machines
  • Gas flow indicators
  • Fluid flow measurement 
  • Industrial process controls
  • HVAC equipment
  • Solar energy equipment
  • Microwave power measurement
  • Photographic processing 
  • Industrial process controls
  • Liquid level indicators
  • Welding equipment
  • Water purification equipment
  • Thermostats
  • Thermoplastic molding equipment
  • Thermocouple conductivity measurement
  • Thermocouple compensation
Medical electronics:
  • Blood analysis equipment
  • Blood dialysis equipment
  • Blood oxygenator equipment
  • Infant incubators
  • Esophageal tubes
  • Skin temperature monitors
  • Myocardial probes
  • Intravenous injection temperature regulator
  • Respiration rate measurement equipment
  • Internal temperature sensors
Military and Aerospace:
  • Aircraft temperature
  • Baththermography
  • Fire control equipment
  • Satellites
  • Missiles and spacecraft temperature 
  • Physiological monitoring
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Thermistor application

A thermistor is a special type of one resistor that uses sensors to help regulate cold and heat. Thermistor uses many devices like voltage regulation, voltage control, time delays, and circuit protection. Here this post gives the various application of thermistor listed below.

The thermistor has various application listed below:
  • A thermistor is used in the control devices actuated by temperature
  • It is used the measurement of flow
  • It is used for the measurement of high-frequency power
  • It measures the composition of gases
  • It is used to measures the vacuum and provides the time delays
  • It is used in automatic temperature controllers
  • It is widely used in temperature measurement
  • The thermistor measures the thermal conductivity
  • It is also used for biasing and compensating circuit of a transistor
  • In electronics circuit used for the temperature compensation
  • The thermistor measures the pressure of a liquid
  • It is used for a current limiting device for circuit protection as a replacement for the fuse
  • Used for the measurement of RF power
  • It is also used for the temperature sensor without or with compensation
  • Thermistor used in the measuring temperature distribution on a temperature gradient
  • Used for the thermal relay circuits and time delay circuit
  • It is used in the control devices actuated by temperature
Some uses of thermistors :
  • Household application
  • Circuit protection
  • Rechargeable batteries
  • Digital thermometers
  • temperature compensation
  • Wheatstone bridge circuits
  • Measure thermal conductivity of electrical materials
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Thermistor advantages and disadvantages

Most of the thermistor is behave like a resistor with a high negative temperature coefficient. AT  that time resistance decreases with the increases in temperature. So this property of thermistor enables to thermistor to detect very small changes in temperature as compared to RTD or thermocouple. So here this post gives the advantages and disadvantages of the thermistor to better understand this topic.

Advantages of thermistor:
  • It is a small size
  • Highly sensitive allows them to work well over a small temperature range
  • They are more sensitive than other temperature sensors
  • Easy to use
  • They are fast in operation
  • It has good sensitivity in NTC region
  • Fast response over the narrow temperature range
  • Cost is low
  • Very responsive to changes in temperature
  • High accurate
  • Repeatable
  • It does not require contact and leads resistance problem not occurred due to large resistance
  • Options for customization
  • Easily interfaced to electronics instrumentation
  • it requires a standard two-wire connection system means they are compatible with many devices
Disadvantages of thermistor:
  • Thermistor need for shielding power lines
  • Extremely non-linear
  • Passive
  • The thermistor is not suitable for a large temperature range
  • The resistance temperature characteristics are nonlinear
  • Narrow working temperature range compared to other sensors such as RTD and thermocouple
  • More fragile as they are semiconductor devices
  • Susceptible to self-heating errors
  • The excitation for large temperature range
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RTD full form

What is the full form of RTD?

  • Resistance Temperature Detectors

What does RTD mean?

RTD is a sensor that sometimes measures temperature by correlating the resistance of the RTD element with temperature. RTD are sometimes referred to generally as a resistance thermometer. Most of RTD elements consist of a length of fine coiled wire wrapped around a ceramic or glass core.  The relationship between as RTD resistance and this surrounding temperature is highly predictable, allowing for accurate and consistent the resulting voltages drop across the resistor, the RTD resistance can be calculated and the temperature can be determined.

RTD advantages and disadvantages

RTD stands for resistance temperature detectors, it is used to measure temperature. RTD is generally high repeatability, good precision, Accurate, and repeatability compared to a thermocouple. So here this post gives information about the advantages and disadvantages of RTD to better understand this topic.

Advantages of RTD:
  • Very stable output
  • Most accurate
  • Linear and predictable
  • High accuracy
  • High repeatability
  • Good precision
  • Low Drift 
  • More linearity compare to a thermocouple
  • No special wire required for installation, easily install and update
  • It is available for in wide range
  • It can be used to measure differential temperature
  • No necessity of temperature compensation
  • Stability maintained over a long period of time
  • They are suitable for remote indication
  • Easy to verify and recalibrate
  • RTD does not require a special extension cable
Disadvantages of RTD:
  • High initial cost
  • Low sensitivity 
  • It requires a more complex measurement circuit
  • Large bulb size
  • Low absolute resistance
  • Current source needed
  • Less rugged in a high vibration environment
  • A bridge circuit is needed with power supply
  • Shock and vibrations affect the reading
  • Point sensing is not possible
  • A circuit is little more complicated as it 34/4 wire measurement
  • Costlier as compared to other sensors like thermocouples
  • Slower response time than a thermocouple
  • More limited temperature range
  • Possibility of self-healing
  • Power supply failure can cause an erroneous reading
  • It can be avoided in industries for ranges above 650 deg. C
  • The RTD requires more complex measurement circuit

Thermocouple advantages and disadvantages

In temperature measurement, the thermocouple term is common and is mainly used in thermometer as the sensor of temperature measurement. The ability of thermocouple who can measure very high until the very low temperature is the main reason why so many industries applying it. This article has given the benefits and drawback of the thermocouple to better understand this topic.

Advantages or benefits of thermocouple:
  • Very wide temperature range about -200oC to +2500oC
  • Fast response time
  • They are a simple construction
  • Low initial cost
  • Durable
  • Easy to read has a clear screen and good scale
  • Quick response for any temperature changes
  • Precision accuracy in temperature measurement
  • It is not easily broken good durability
  • Good to be used temperature variation measurement with below 1 cm distance range
  • Available in small sheath sizes
  • Not required bridge circuit
  • Good accuracy
  • Does not required bridge circuit
  • Good reproducibility
  • High-speed response
  • They are rugged
  • They are a self-power active device
Disadvantages  or drawback of thermocouple:
  • Not as stable as RTD
  • Recalibration is difficult
  • More susceptible to RFI/EMI
  • They are nonlinear
  • It is used for only temperature measurement only
  • They have a low output voltage
  • Less sensitivity
  • They require a reference for operation
    The stray voltage pick up is possible
  • As output voltage is very small so it needs amplification
  • Decreased accuracy comparing to RTD
  • Difficult to verify
  • Require expensive TC wire from the sensor to recording device
  • The cold junction and lead compensation is essential

LVDT applications

LVDT is a displacement sensor and many other physical quantities can be sensed by converting the displacement to the desired quantity via thoughtful arrangements. It also used to convert mechanical motion or vibrations into a variable electrical current, voltage or electric signals specifically rectilinear motion. So, they are used in a wide variety of applications and lots of advantages, from pill making machines to measuring the thickness of dollar bills in ATM machines. 

 Applications of LVDT :
  • LVDT is used to measure the weight as a secondary transducer, this transducer can also work as a secondary transducer.
  • LVDT is used in industries as well as servomechanisms.
  • It can be used testing of soil strength.
  • It can used robotics cleaner.
  • Brain probing medical device.
  • Craft shaft balancer.
  • Final product infection ( checking dimension ).
  • Electronics dial indicator.
  • PILL making machine.
  • Natural gas fuel valve position for a gas turbine for throttle control.
  • Feedwater boiler pump valve positioning.
  • Dollar bill thickness in ATM machines.
  • LVDT is sensor works as the main transducer and that changes dislocation to an electrical signal straight.
  • It is also used in hydraulic cylinder displacement. 
  • It can be used for displacement ranging from the fraction of mm to few cms.
  • Some of these transducers are used to calculate the pressure and load and force.
  • The other application like power turbines, automotive suspension control, hydraulics, automation, aircraft, and satellites.

LVDT full form

What is the full form of LVDT?


  • Linear Variable Differential Transformer

What does LVDT mean?

LVDT is also called a linear displacement transducer or linear position transducer. LVDT is a robust, complete linear arrangement transducer and naturally frictionless. This sensor device measures linear displacement very accurately.

The application of LVDT is mostly used in automation, aircraft, hydraulics, satellites, power turbines and many more. These types of transducers contain low physical phenomena and also must outstanding repetition.


Advantages and disadvantages of LVDT

One of the key advantages of an LVDT is that there is no physical electrical contact across the transducer position sensing element. An LVDT output is clean data that has an infinite resolution and a very long life cycle. Here this post gives information about the benefits and drawbacks of LVDT to better understand this topic.

Advantages of LVDT:
  • LVDT has a low power consumption
  • It has a higher sensitive
  • It has a ruggedness
  • Easy to align and maintain
  • It has a wide range
  • It has a lower hysteresis loss
  • It has a higher measurement range 
  • It is a frictionless device
  • It offers a high resolution which is greater than 10 nm
  • It is less in weight
  • It is smaller in size
  • It is solid and robust, simple in construction
  • It has excellent repeatability
  • It has a lower output impedance
  • It is not affected due to the external environment
  • The sliding core does not touch inside the tube and hence it can mover without friction
Disadvantages of LVDT:
  • Sensitive to a stray magnetic field
  • It has large primary voltage produce distortion in an output
  • Temperature affects the performance
  • It has limited dynamic response
  • Vibration due to displacement can affect the performance of the LVDT device
  • DC output external demodulator is required
  • Large displacement is needed for small output

Difference between n type and p type semiconductor

A semiconductor which is an extremely pure form is called as the intrinsic semiconductor, A semiconductor which contains some impurities is called extrinsic semiconductor. After adding some impurities in the pure semiconductor we can improve some properties of semiconductor material. The process of adding impurities is called doping. so here the main purpose of doping is to add impurities in the semiconductor and increase the number of electrons or holes in the semiconductor material. Depending upon the added impurities p-type and n-type semiconductor can be decided so first let we understand what is the difference between intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductor after that we have to understand this topic.

Difference between N-type and P-type semiconductor listed below:
  • An N-type semiconductor is an extrinsic semiconductor while P-type semiconductor of the extrinsic semiconductor
  • In N-type semiconductor, electrons are majority carriers and holes are minority carriers while in P-type semiconductor holes are majority carriers and electrons are minority carriers
  • The N-type semiconductor has a larger electrons concentration and less hole concentration while in P-type has holes concentration and fewer electrons concentration
  • N-type has pentavalent impurities are added while in p-type trivalent impurities are added
  • N-type has donor energy levels very close to the conduction band while P-type has acceptor energy levels very close to the valance band
  • In N-type majority, carriers move from lower to higher potential while in  P-type majority carrier move from higher to lower potential
  • In N-type, the electron density is much greater than the density of the holes while in P-type holes density is much greater than the electron density
  • In N-type, the donor energy level is close to the conduction band and away from the valence band while in P-type the acceptor energy level close to the valance band and away from the conduction band
  • In N-type, the Fermi level lies between the donor energy level and the conduction band while in P-type the Fermi level lies between the acceptor energy level and the valence band
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Difference between extrinsic and intrinsic semiconductors

Here this post gives the difference between extrinsic and intrinsic semiconductor to better understand this topic.
Difference :

  • Intrinsic semiconductor also called an undoped semiconductor or basically, I type semiconductor are pure semiconductor without any significant species present. The number of charge carriers is therefore determined by the properties of the material itself instead of the number of impurities, while in the extrinsic semiconductor are impure. When a small quantity of impurity is mixed in a pure or intrinsic conductor, a conductivity of semiconductor increases. Such an impure semiconductor is called extrinsic semiconductor 
  • The electrical conductivity of an intrinsic semiconductor is poor while in extrinsic semiconductor conductivity of large
  • While we are using intrinsic semiconductor the number of holes and electrons produced due to the thermal energy are equal  but in extrinsic semiconductor, the number of electrons and holes produced due to the thermal energy are must not be equal
  • The current conduction is due to electrons and hole but in  extrinsic the current conduction is due to either holes or electrons
  •  While we have to use intrinsic semiconductor the Fermi level is at the center of the forbidden energy gap and is unchanged with a change in temperature but in extrinsic, the Fermi level shift upward or downward with a change in temperature
  • In an intrinsic semiconductor, the electrical conductivity is a function of temperature to be alone but in extrinsic semiconductor, the electrical conductivity depends upon the temperature as well as on the number of impurity atoms doped the structure
  • The impurity like arsenic, antimony, phosphorus,  and aluminum indium, etc is added to the pure form of silicon and germanium to form an extrinsic semiconductor. The pure form of silicon and germanium type of crystal is used in an intrinsic semiconductor

Advantages and disadvantages of WDM

WDM has wide application in the electronics and network communication system because of this useful feature details. Other method called DWDM, it's different from WDM. The main difference between WDM and DWDM is DWDM has a greater overall capacity so DWDM spaces the wavelength more closely than WDM. Here this post gives information about the benefits and drawback of WDM to better understand this topic.
Advantages of WDM:
  • Easier to reconfigure
  • Full duplex transmission is possible
  • It provides higher bandwidth
  • Optical component are similar and more reliable
  • High security
  • This could be the best approach as it is simple to implement
Disadvantages of WDM:
  • Signals cannot be very close
  • Lightwave carrying while using WDM are limited to 2 point circuit
  • Cost of the system increases with the addition of optical components
  • Scalability is a concern as OLT has to have transmitter array with one transmitter for each ONU. Adding a new ONU could be a problem unless the transmitter were provisioned in advance. Each ONU must have a wavelength specific laser
  • Difficulty in wavelength tuning
  • Inefficiency in BW utilization
  • Difficulty in a cascaded topology
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Difference between WDM and DWDM

The main comparison between WDM and DWDM is one of degree only. DWDM has a greater overall capacity so DWDM spaces the wavelength more closely than WDM. Here this post gives the information about WDM vs DWDM to better understand this topic.

Difference between WDM and DWDM:
  • WDM stands for wavelength division multiplexing while DWDM stands for dense wavelength division multiplexing.
  • In WDM the number of the light source are used each emits the light of different wavelength but in DWDM utilized closely spaces channels.
  • In WDM channel spacing reduces to 1.6 nm or less while in DWDM channel spacing is small 200 GHz and small.
  • In WDM optical multiplexer is used as the input side to multiplex these signal while in DWDM assign the incoming optical signal to specific frequency multiplex them for transport over a single fiber.
  • In the WDM method, all signal arrives at the same time instead of being distributed across time slots while in DWDM multiple channels of information carried over the same fiber each using individual wavelength.
  • In DWDM cost per channel is high compared to WDM.
  • In WDM number of channel delivered only two while in DWDM number of channel delivered around a hundred.
  • 1310 nm laser used in conjunction with 1550 nm lasers while in DWDM is qualified only for system Z only.
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Multicast routing protocol

A multicast routing protocol is one type of service provider and that functions as a client within the framework of the router architecture. This routing protocol manages group membership and controls the path that multicast data take over the network. The routing architecture is designed to be extended by such router client type of modules.

Multicast routing is in charge of deciding and propagating information needed to forward multicast packets outside in local area network among multiple interconnected multicast routers over the network. Multicast routing protocol which is used for graphs while in multicast routing protocol is used for a tree. 

Multicast routing protocol includes protocol independent multicast(PIM), Multicast open shortest path first(MOSPF), and Distance vector multicast routing protocol(DVMRP). The internet group management protocol(IGMP) is a special multicast protocol that acts as an intermediary between host and routers.

 Protocol dependent multicast is commonly used now. It has two flavors:
  • MOSPF: Multicast open shortest path first
  • CBT: Core-based tree
  • PIM: protocol independent multicast
Protocol independent multicast is commonly used now. It has two flavors:
  • PIM type dense mode -  This mode uses source-based trees. It is used in dense environments such as LAN.
  • PIM type sparse mode - This mode uses shared trees. It is used in a sparse environment such as WAN.

Unicast routing protocol

Before we learn about unicast routing protocol first let us understand what is unicast. There are types of routing protocol name as intradomain and interdomain. Distance vector and link state is an intradomain routing protocol while path vector is inter-domain routing protocol here this article are described to this three protocol in details.

                   

1. Distance vector routing protocols:

Distance vector is one of the simplest routing protocol which routing decision on the number of hops between source and destination. A route with less number of hops which is considered as the best route. Every router advertises its set best routers. The least cost route between any two nodes is the route with a total minimum distance. Each node maintains a vector of minimum distance to every node. Ultimately all routers build up their network topology based on the advertisement of their peer routers, for example, routing information protocol. 

2. Link state routing:

Link state routing protocol is the second family routing protocol. It is a slightly complicated protocol than distance vector. Link state routing uses link state routers to exchange message that allows each router to learn the entire network topology. All router then calculate their best path for routing purposes. Based on this learned topology, each router is then able to compute its routing table by using the shortest path computation. 

The concept of link state routing
The concept of link state routing 

Basic features of the unicast link state routing protocol: 
  • Link-state packet  considered as a: A small packet that contains routing information
  • Link state database considered as A collection information gathered from link state packet
  • Shortest path first algorithm: A calculations performed on the database results into the shortest path
  • Routing table: A first of known paths and interfaces
The figure shows that a simple five nodes. Each node uses the same topology to create a routing table bit the routing table for each and every node is unique because the calculations are based on different interpretations of the topology. While each and every person may have the same map each needs to take a different route to reach her specific destination.

Link state knowledge
Link state knowledge
 Build a routing table:
  • Creation of the states of a link by each node called as the link state packet
  • Dissemination of LSP to every other router called flooding in an efficient and reliable way
  • Formation of the shortest path tree for each node
  • Calculations of a routing table on the shortest path tree
Link state routing protocol is to compare with distance vector protocol have the following way:
  • It requires a large amount of memory
  • Shortest path computations require many CPU circles
  • It network uses the little bandwidth
  • It quickly reacts to topology changes
  • No splits horizon techniques are possible in the link state routing
  • Authentication mechanisms can be used to avoid undesired adjacency and problems
  • All neighbors must be trusted in the topology
  • All item in the database must be sent to neighbors to form link state packets 
3. Path vector method:

Distance vector and link state routing both are intradomain routing protocols. These two protocols are not suitable for interdomain routing protocol mostly because of their scalability. Both of this routing protocol became intractable when the domain of operation becomes large. Distance vector routing is subject to instability if there are more than a few hops in the domain of operation. While in path vector routing we assume that there is one node in each autonomous system that acts on behalf of the entire autonomous system.

Anycast routing

What is anycast?

Anycast is packet based forwarding mechanism where multiple hosts can have the same logical address. DNS is a traffic routing algorithm used for the speedy delivery of website content the advertises individual IP addresses on multiple nodes. 

Whenever any anycast packet is received it is enquired with DNS to where to send it. DNS provides basically IP address which is the nearest IP configured on it.

How does anycast work?

Anycast network routing is able to route for incoming connection request across multiple data centers. When a request comes into a single IP address associated with the anycast network, the network request distributes the data based on some prioritization methodology. The selection process behind choosing a particular data center will typically be optimized to reduce latency by selecting the data center with the shortest distance from the request.

Anycast routing
Anycast routing

There several advantages of anycast routing including:
  • Faster connection
  • Simplified server configuration
  • High availability
  • DDoS mitigation

Multicast routing

What is multicast routing?

Multicast routing is a method for transferring data from one source to a group of receivers simultaneously. The main goal of the router is to route the packets. While in broadcast routing packet is sent to all nodes even if they do not want it but in multicast routing the data sent to only nodes which want to receive the packets.

Multicast routing
Multicast routing

The router must know that there are nodes which wish to receive multicast packets then only it should forward. Multicast routing works spanning tree protocol to avoid looping. Multicast routing also uses reverse path forwarding techniques to detect and discard duplicates and loop. It can also help us to minimize the computational resources needed to make copies of the data and the total volume of bandwidth that otherwise would have been used to carry multiple copies of the same content.

Multicast tree:

To show in the figure, multicast routing will work on spanning type tree protocol to avoid looping. The router and the interfaces traversed by multicast date to reach its receiver form a tree. The source that transmits the data known as the root and the receivers are the leaves on the multicast tree.

Multicast routing
Multicast routing tree

Multicast routing protocols:

First, let us understand what is the multicast routing protocol. There are two types of multicast routing protocols:
  • Dense mode
  • Sparse mode
You can also learn some different routing method :

2. Anycast Routing
3. Broadcast Routing

Broadcasting routing

We all know that the broadcasting is destined to all network devices. It is a method for broadcasting to transfer a message to all recipients simultaneously. It can be performed as a high-level operation in a program. In this method, the packet is sent to all nodes even if they do not want it. Router create configured to forward broadcast in some special cases. This broadcast message is destined for all network devices.

So the router creates a data packet and then send it to each host one by one. The router creates multiple copies of a single data packets with different destination addresses. All packet are sent as unicast but because they sent all, It simulates is broadcasting.
  • This method consumes a lot of bandwidth and router must destination address of each node
  • Secondly, when a router receives a packet that is to be broadcast, it simply floods those packet out of interfaces. All routers are configured in the same way.
  • This method is easy on the router on CPU but may cause the problem of duplicate packets received from peer routers.
  • Reverse path forwarding is a technique in which router knows in advance about it predecessor from where it would receive the broadcast. This technique is used to detect and also some discard duplicates.
Broadcasting routing
Broadcasting routing

You can also learn some different routing method :

1. Unicast Routing
2. Anycast Routing
3. Multicast routing

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