IGBT symbol

IGBT stands for Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors a three terminal device. It combined with BJT and MOSFET. It can be used as an electronic switch.

Schematic symbol diagram :
MOSFET                  BJT                              IGBT

MOSFET symbol

N-channel and P-channel both are Metal oxide field effect transistor ( MOSFET ). It is a four terminal device. MOSFET has four terminal called G called gate, D called drain, S called source and B called base. MOSFET full form source terminal is frequently connected so making it a three-terminal device like a Field effect transistor. It is most commonly used in the analog and digital circuit.

Schematic diagram symbol :

N-channel                        P-channel

Advantages and disadvantages of FET

The term FET full form is the Field Effect Transistor. We all know the real fact is all MOSFET are FETs but not all FETs are MOSFET. It is used in amplifier in the oscilloscope, electronics voltmeter, multiplexer, chopper, etc. This article gives information about advantages and disadvantages of FET to know more about FETs.

Advantages of FET :
  • FET has a high input impedance of several megaohms 
  • FET has less effect by radiation than BJT
  • Temperature stable than BJT
  • Less noise compare to BJT
  • Can be fabricated with fewer processing
  • Smaller in size
  • Longer life
  • High efficiency
  • It can be used low frequency application
  • Uni-polar device
  • Voltage control device
  • They have better thermal stability
  • They have voltage control device
Disadvantages of  FET :
  • They are more costly than junction transistor
  • Smaller gain bandwidth product compare to BJT
  • Transconductance is low hence voltage gain is low
  • It has lower switching time compare to BJT
  • Special handling is required during installation
  • When FET performance degrades as frequency increases. This due to the feedback by internal capacitance
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Advantages and disadvantages of MOSFET

The term MOSFET full form is Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor-Field-Effect-Transistor. MOSFET is a one types of power transistor device mostly used in VLSI circuit, CMOS digital circuit, microprocessor, and memory devices etc. This article gives information about the advantages and disadvantages of  MOSFET to know more about MOSFET.

Advantages of MOSFET :
  • Ability to scale down in size
  • It has low power consumption to allow more components per chip surface area
  • MOSFET has no gate diode. This makes it is possible to operate with a positive or negative gate voltage
  • It read directly with very thin active area
  • They have high drain resistance due to lower resistance of a channel
  • Physical size is less than 4 mm^2 when it is a package form
  • It is widely used than JFET
  • The enhancement type MOSFET find wide application in digital circuitry
  • They support high speed operation compare to JFETs 
  • They have high input impedance compare to JFET
  • It is easier to fabricate MOSFET than JFET
  • They can easy to manufacture
Disadvantages of  MOSFET :
  • Has a short life
  • Required repeated calibration for accurate dose measurement
  • They have very susceptible to overload voltage, hence due to installation special handling is to be required 

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BJT modes of operation

The Bipolar junction transistor (BJT) is a junction transistor. It can be operated in three modes. The operation of the transistor in these modes is listed below :
  • Cute of mode
  • Saturation mode
  • Active mode
1. Cut of mode :
  • In cut of mode both of emitter to base and collector to base are reversed biased. 
  • In reverse bias condition, there is no current flow through the device, so there is no current flowing in the transistor.
  • So in this mode transistor is OFF state.
  • In off state mode of a transistor can be used switching operation for switch off application.
2. Saturation mode :
  • In saturation mode, both of collector to base and emitter to base is forward bias. 
  • In forward bias condition, current flow through the device, so electric current flow through the transistor.
  • So in this mode, free electrons flow from both of device emitter to base and collector to base.
  • In this mode huge current flow to the base of a transistor so at this stage transistor in going to saturation mode and that will be on ON state and acts as a closed switch.
So finally we conclude that above two modes of operation transistor as an ON/OFF switch.

 3. Active mode :
  • In Active mode one junction Collector to a base reverse mode and other junction emitters to base forward bias.
  • So in this type of mode, it can be used as amplification of current.
Conclusion: So we can conclude that the transistor work as an ON/OFF switch when it is in saturation and cut off modes whereas it works as an amplifier of current in active mode.

Application of BJT

Biploar Junction Transistor (BJT) can be most commonly used in analog and digital circuit Here this article gives some application of BJT to better understand this topic.
  • It is used digital circuit design 
  • It is used as amplifying circuit
  • It is used as amplifying circuit
  • It is also used sound amplifier
  • It is used as a oscillator
  • It can used as modulator
  • It can be used as multivibrator
  • It is used in electronics switch
  • It is used timer as well as time delay circuit
  • It can be also used in demodulator or detector
  • Analog circuit
  • High frequency application
  • Switching device
  • Microwave device
  • Robotics application
  • Darling-ton pair circuit
  • Heavy motor to control current flow

Advantages and disadvantages of BJT

The term BJT full form is called as Bipolar Junction Transistor. It is one type of power transistor. It is used in the amplifier, multi-vibrator, oscillator, modulator, demodulator, etc. This article gives information about the advantages and disadvantages of BJT to know more about BJT.

 Advantages of  BJT : 
  • They have a better voltage gain
  • They have a high current density
  • They have a low forward voltage 
  • It can be operated in low to high power application
  • BJT has a large gain bandwidth
  • BJT shows better performance at high frequency
Disadvantages of BJT :
  • BJT has a low thermal stability
  • BJT is most effective by radiation
  • BJT has more noise produced
  • BJT has a low switching frequency
  • BJT has a very complex control
  • The switching time is not very fast compared to a high alternating frequency of current and voltage 

BJT symbol

NPN and PNP both are Bipolar junction transistor (full form of BJT). It is three terminal electronics device n b called Base, e called Emitter and c called Collector. It is back to back connection of two P-N junction diode. The terminal are emitter are highly doped, base are lightly doped and collector are moderately doped region.

Schematic diagram symbol :

NPN                                          PNP

Full form of SITH

What is full form of SITH?

 Answer :
  • Static Induction Thyristor

What does SITH mean?

The SITH is a one type of thyristor but with a buried gate structure. In this circuit, a gate electrodes are placed n-base region. So they are always normally on state, gate electrodes must be negatively biased to hold off state

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Schottky diode symbol

The schematic symbol of schottky diode is shown in figure given below. In schottky diode, the n types of semiconductor acts as the cathode while metal acts as anode. Schottky diode has a aluminium-silicon junction.

 This diode also known as hot carrier diodes, Schottky diode has low reverse recover time as well as low junction capacitance

 Symbol of schottky diode :
    
                               

P-N junction diode symbol

A P-N junction diode is a silicon. The P-N junction is the basic element for semiconductor diodes type. One of the terminals is doped with P- types material as well as the other with N - type of material. 

The schematic symbol of P-N junction diode is made up P-type silicon and N-type silicon semiconductor materials.

Symbol of p-n junction diode :    

                                

Advantages and disadvantages of cellular system

This article gives information about the advantages and disadvantages of a cellular systems to know more details about this topic.

 Advantages of the cellular system :
  • High capacity
  • Reduced in  process
  • Less transmission power
  • Reduced set up times
  • It reduced the interference which increases the total system capacity
  • It improved S/N ratio
  • Reduced the cluster size
  • More robust against the failure of single components
  • Smaller the size of the cell
  • Local interference only
  • Robustness.
Disadvantages of the cellular system :
  • Handover is needed
  • Good infrastructure needed
  • Frequency planning should be good
  • Increases the number of an antenna in each of base station

    Advantages and disadvantages of Bluetooth

    Bluetooth is built into a variety of different devices including phones, i Pods, headsets and even some medical equipment. Bluetooth is itself one advantage in communication technology. Bluetooth is leading technology in the future of wireless communication technological devices. The main objective of Bluetooth is eliminate plugin, install, enable or configure anything to make a connection. So this article gives the advantages and disadvantages of Bluetooth to know more about it.   

    Advantages of Bluetooth
    • Wireless internet connectivity
    • Easy to install
    • It is cheap
    • No line of sight hence can connect through any obstacles
    • Bluetooth has lower power consumption
    • It is free to use if the device is installed with it
    • It is used for voice and data transfer
    • It is easily up-gradable
    • Data communication is more secure
    • Bluetooth is adopted in many product such as head set, car system, web cam, GPS system, mouse, keyboard
    • Pass through walls 
    • It is use for voice and data transfer.
    • It used FHSS hence data communication is more secure. 
    • Availability of Bluetooth headphones calls can be taken even while driving so hands free operation relives great strain
    • Less interference compared to other wireless technologies 

    Disadvantages of Bluetooth
    • Bluetooth is very low bandwidth as compared to Wi-Fi
    • Bluetooth can allows only short range communication between devices 
    • Bluetooth can connect two devices at once
    • It can be hacked into
    • It can lose connection in certain conditions
    • Bluetooth installed on a cellphone it is prone to receiving cell phone viruses
    • Battery exhausted faster when the Bluetooth is ON 
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    Full form of EDFA

    What is the full form of EDFA?

    Answer :
    • Erbium-Doped Fiber Amplifier

    What does EDFA mean?

     EDFA is an optical amplifier that amplified a modulated laser beam directly, without electron-optical or optoelectronic conversion. The most popular material for long haul telecommunication application widely used in silica doped with erbium, which is known as Erbium doped fiber amplifier or EDFA.

    Advantages and disadvantages of thyristors

    The terms thyristor denotes a family of semiconductor devices and it is used for power control in DC and AC system. One of the oldest methods of this thyristor family called silicon control rectifier (SCR). This article gives information about some advantages and disadvantages of the thyristor to know more details about thyristor.

    Advantages of Thyristor :
    • It is easy to turn on
    • It is able to control AC power
    • It can switch high voltage, a high current device
    • It cost is very low
    • It is simple to control
    • It can be protected with the help of use
    • It can handle large voltage, power as well as current
    • It is a much smaller in size compared to the transformer 
    • The triggering circuit for SCR is simple
    Disadvantages of Thyristor :
    • It can not be negative
    • It can not be used higher frequency
    • It can not be  easily turn off
    • In the AC circuit, it need to be turn on each cycle
    • Gate current can not be negative
    • Low switching speed
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    Thyristor Triac

    SCR stands for Silicon Control Rectifier is a unidirectional device that can conduct from anode to cathode only and not from cathode to anode while A Triac can conduct in both the directions. 

    A TRIAC is thus bidirectional thyristor with three terminals device. Thyristor used extensively used for the control of power in the AC circuit. 
    Circuit Symbol 

    The word of Triac stands for is comings from by combining the capital letters from the word TRIode and AC. When in operation, a Triac is equivalent to two SCRs connected in anti-parallel to shown in a figure. The circuit symbol and its characteristics are shown in the figure given below.
    Characteristics of TRIAC
    This article also gives some advantages and disadvantages of TRIAC to know more learn about TRIAC device in power electronics engineering. 

     Advantages of  TRIAC :
    • It needs a single fuse for protection
    • It can be triggered with positive or negative polarities of glass pulses
    • When the voltage reduced to zero the TRIAC turns off
    • It needs a single heat sink of slightly larger size compared to other
    Disadvantages of TRIAC :
    • It is not suitable for DC application
    • It has a very high switching delay
    • It can be triggered in any direction 
    • It is not much reliable than SCR
    • It has a low rating compared to SCR
    • dv/dt rating is very low than SCR

    Thyristor based project

    One of the best advantages of thyristor has over other switching devices, a thyristor, for instance, an instance for a thyristor is that signaling of current does not need to be maintained for the thyristor (SCR) device to remain in its conducting state. The thyristor can be used much more application in daily life. Here this article gives information about the thyristor-based project to know more learn about thyristor.
    • Thyristor based dual converter
    • Thyristor based sensor alarm system
    • Thyristor based cyclo-converter
    • Thyristor power control by IR remote
    • Heat control circuit using SCR
    • Flexible AC transmission by thyristor switch reactance
    • Emergency light system control using SCR
    • Thyristor based speed control of DC motor
    • Automatic street light circuit 200 A.C with SCR
    • Overvoltage protection using SCR
    • Thyristor control power for induction motor
    • SCR robot
    • Thyristor trigger using a microcontroller
    • Thyristor based interfacing
    • Ac switching using triac
    • Intruder alarms using SCR
    • Battery charging by thyristor triggering control
    • Thyristor power control using a TV remote

    Thyristor Basics

    Thyristor or a silicon control rectifier (SCR full form) is basically four semiconductor rectifier, it consists of alternating n and p types of materials forming three P-N junctions which can be a switch from off - state to on-state. It is a similar construction of transistor.

     One of the best advantages of thyristor has over other switching devices, a thyristor, for instance, an instance for a thyristor is that signaling of current does not need to be maintained for the thyristor device to remain in it's on conducting state. The silicon controlled rectifier(SCR) is the most popular member of the thyristor family.

     There are several other members of thyristor family like PUT, SCS, SUC, TRIAC, DIAC etc.

     Thyristor basic three modes of operation :
    • Reverse blocking operation
    • Forward blocking mode
    • Forward conducting mode

    What is LED

    Definition of LED :

     Nowadays the light is collected from the edge of the full form of an LED, in order to reduce the losses caused by absorption in the active layer and to make the beam more directional. Such a device is known as an edge emitting LED or LED.

     Light emitting diode (LED) is a component its convert the electrical signal into a corresponding light that is injected into the fiber. Basically, the light emitter is a key element in any fiber optic system. Essentially LED is a PN junction diode. LED has two types of LED structure called has Heterojunction and double heterojunction diode.

     One of the major characteristics of an LED is a different color. Initially, various types of LED colors were restricted only red LEDs were available but after semiconductor processes were improved and new research was undertaken to investigate in direction of new LEDs many different colors were available.

     Features of LED : 
    • A linear relationship between optical output and current. 
    • Spectral width is 25 to 40 nm or lambda equal to around 0.8 - 0.9 µm.
    • Modulation bandwidth is much large. 
    • Not affected by catastrophic gradation mechanisms hence LEDs are more reliable. 
    • Better coupling efficiency than the surface emitter.
    • Less temperature was sensitive. 
    Usage :
    • It is most commonly used for short-range narrow and medium bandwidth links. 
    • Long distance analog links.
    • Suitable for digital systems up to 140 Mb/sec.
    Light source material :

    In light source material the spontaneous emission due to carrier recombination is called carrier recombination electroluminescence.

    To encourage electroluminescence, so it is necessary to select an appropriate semiconductor material. The semiconductors depending on energy bandgap can be categorized into the following way,
    • Direct bandgap semiconductors 
    • Indirect bandgap semiconductors. 
    • In the direct bandgap semiconductors, the electrons, and holes on either side of band gap have the same value of crystal momentum. Hence, direct recombination is ban possible
    • In the direct gap of semiconductors, the maximum and minimum energies occur at different values of crystal momentum. The recombination in these semiconductors is quite slow.
    • The active layer semiconductor material must have a direct band gap to shown in the figure. In the direct bandgap semiconductor, electrons and holes recombine directly without need of the third particle to conserve momentum.
    • In these materials, the optical radiation is sufficiently too much high. 
    • The peak output power is obtained around 810 nm. The width of emission at half power (0.5) is referred to as (full-width half maximum- FWHM) spectral width. For the given LED FWHM is 36 nm.
    The fundamental quantum mechanical relationship between gap energy E and the frequency of  v is given as a formula in this form;

     E = hv

     E = hc / ɣ

     ɣ = hc / E

    Where energy E is in joules and wavelength is measured in a meter. Expressing the gap energy in electron volts and wavelength in micrometers for this formula.



    Types of LEDs according to color:
    • Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) - Infrared
    • Gallium Arsenide  photo-side (GAAsP) - Red to inferred, orange
    • Zine selenide (ZnSe) - Blue
    • Aluminium Gallium  Nitride (ALGaN) - Ultraviolet
    • Silicon Carbide (SiC) - Blue as a substrate
    • Aluminium Gallium Phosphide (AlGaP) - Green
    • Gallium Indium Nitride (GalnN) - Near ultraviolet, bluish-green and blue
    • Zinc Selenide (ZnSe) - Blue
    • Gallium Phosphide (GaP) - Red, yellow, and green 
    • Multicolor LEDs
    LED can be used in a variety of application like automotive, mobile devices, Backlighting and projection, General illumination etc. This articles also gives information about various types of application in LED to know more details about LED.

    1. Automotive :
    • Headlights
    • Instrument panel
    • Infotainment backlighting
    • Interior lighting
    • RCL
    • General lighting
    • Camera flashes
    • Lighted wallpaper
    • traffic signal
    2. Mobile devices :
    • Display back-lighting
    • Mobile phones and display messages
    • Camera flash
    3. Back-lighting and projection :
    • The large format TV display
    • Laptop
    • Pocket and data projector
    4. General illumination :
    • Residential
    • Industrial
    • Medical data display board
    • Retail display
    • Signs and channel lettering

    LED colors

    One of the major characteristics of an LED uses a different color. Initially what is full form of LED colors were restricted only red LEDs were available. But after semiconductor processes were improved and new research was undertaken to investigate in direction of new LEDs many different colors were available. 

     Different types of LED colors with wavelength given below :

    1. Infrared 
    Wavelength - > 760
    Voltage drop -  < 1.9
    Semiconductor material - Gallium arsenide, Aluminium gallium arsenide

    2.  Red
    Wavelength - 610-760
    Voltage drop - 1.6 TO 2.0
    Semiconductor material - Galium arsenide phosphide, Aluminium gallium arsenide

    3. Violet
    Wavelength - 400-450
    Voltage drop - 2.8 to 4.0
    Semiconductor material - Indium gallium nitride

    4. Purple
    Wavelength - multi types
    Voltage drop - 2.4 to 3.7
    Semiconductor material - Blue with red phosphor, White with purple plastic, Dual blue/red LEDs

    5. Ultraviolet
    Wavelength - <400
    Voltage drop - 3.1 to 4.4
    Semiconductor material - Diamond, boron nitride, aluminium nitride

    6. Pink
    Wavelength - Multi types
    Voltage drop - 3.3
    Semiconductor material - Blue with phosphor, white with pink pigment, yellow with red, orange, or pink phosphor

    7. White 
    Wavelength - Broad spectrum
    Voltage drop - 3.5
    Semiconductor material - Silicon. silicon carbide, Zinc selenide

    8. Orange 
    Wavelength - 590-610
    Voltage drop - 2.0 to 2.1
    Semiconductor material - Gallium arsenide phosphide, Gallium phosphide

    9. Yellow 
    Wavelength - 570-590
    Voltage drop - 2.1 to 2.2
    Semiconductor material - Gallium arsenide phosphide, Gallium phosphide

    10. Green
    Wavelength - 500-570
    Voltage drop - 1.9 to 4.0
    Semiconductor material - Aluminium gallium phosphide, Gallium indium phosphide, Indium gallium nitride
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