CDMA applications

Because to inherent advantages of CDMA over TDMA full form and FDMA full forms such as user capacity, soft handoffs and securities applications of that increase and it used in a variety of applications. Let we check the applications one by one below.

Applications :
  • CDMA is used for a cellular system.
  • One of the most important for CDMA is on GPS.
  • It can be used for subscriber access control.
  • CDMA is used for personal communication service.
  • It can be used for over the air activation.
  • It can be used for short message service.
  • The UMTS 3G mobile phone standard, which uses CDMA.
  • It is used radar and navigation system.
  • Wireless laptop modem.
  • Soft handoff and security.
  • It is used military and some commercial application.
  • CDMA used for anti-collision and increased read efficiency of multiple RFID.
  • Bluetooth uses fast FH-CDMA.
  • Improvement of speech coders in the wireless communication system.
  • Another standard CDMA 2000, is used by several mobile, phone companies, as well as the global-star satellite phone network.

Difference between FDMA and TDMA

Without the use of channel access methods, it would be very difficult for telecommunication device companies to provide a level of series. FDMA and TDMA both are technologies that are used before the 3G network technology launched. These technologies utilized to improve the performance of the 2G network. So difference or comparison between these two is needed to know. Let us check the difference between them one by one given below. First, let us check it out  the full form of FDMA and full form of TDMA

 FDMA :
  • FDMA stands for frequency division multiplexing.
  • FDMA has lesser power efficiency.
  • Only one terminal can be active only in one cell or one sector.
  • It has a continuous transmission scheme.
  • It requires higher carrier frequency stability.
  • It is not required synchronization.
  • Cell capacity depends upon the cell area.
  • It has divided the frequency band into some disjoint sub-band.
  • Difficult to power monitoring.
  • It is used GSM and PDC.
  • FDMA is simply idle when the channel is not used.
  • Analog link is suitable for FDMA.
  • In FDMA bandwidth is relatively narrow.
  • Tight filtering is needed to minimize interference.
  • Combined with FDD for duplexing.
  • No equalization is needed for spreading symbol time.
TDMA :
  • TDMA stands for time division multiple access.
  • TDMA has more power efficiency.
  • All terminal is active for a short term period of time on the same frequency.
  • It has a discontinuous transmission scheme.
  • The higher carrier frequency is not necessary.
  • It requires synchronization.
  • Limited cell capacity.
  • It has total divided time into a non-overlapping time slot.
  • Easy power monitoring.
  • It is used for advanced mobile phone systems.
  • All slot are assigned cyclically.
  • And also have all slots are assigned on demand.
  • Handoff is made simpler by using the non-continuous transmission
  • It is essential to use digital data and also uses a modulation system.
  • Overhead tradeoffs are the size of data payload and latency.
  • Transmission system is allowed for only one user in a given slot.
  • Multiple users share with a single carrier frequency.
  • Data rate overhead is between 20 to 30 %.
  • When reduced inter-user interference, power control is less stringent.
  • Also, GSM uses TDMA in combination with FDMA. its a one types of advantages of TDMA
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Static circuit breaker

Definition of static circuit breaker :

The static circuit breaker is basically semiconductor-based circuit. This circuit breaker is capable of providing a fast and also a reliable interruption current. 

The static circuit breaker is of two types :
  1. Static AC circuit breaker 
  2. Static DC circuit breaker
Here this article gives information about two circuit breaker to know more details about circuit breaker.

Static AC circuit breaker :
  • A simple arrangement of static ac circuit breaker shown in the figure. The circuit can switch on and switch off by using two thyristors SCR 1 and SCR 2.
  • When thyristor SCR 1 is turn on a positive cycle alternative supply when the switch is on condition.
  • When SCR 1 is off, the current becomes automatically zero.
  • When SCR 2 turn on the negative cycle of alternative supply.
  • SCR 1 receives the gate pulse through the diode D2 and  SCR 1 receives the gate pulse through the diode D1.
 

Static DC circuit breaker :
  • A simple arrangement of static dc circuit breaker shown in the figure given below. Force commutation is essential for turning off a thyristor device.
  • When SCR1 turn on, load voltage becomes equal to supply voltage and capacitor get charge through the circuit source voltage Vs, resistor R, capacitor C and SCR 1.
  • When breaking the circuit, SCR 2 is turned on.
  • SCR 2 turn on and  SCR 1 turn off due to reverse voltage across it.
  • The capacitor again charge +Vs to -Vs through the circuit Vs, load C and SCR 2.
  • When capacitor C is totally charged to -Vs, a current through load will be zero and the same time current through R will less than the holding current of SCR 2.
  • At that time SCR 2 will get turn off naturally, from this the value R can be determined.

Features of OFDM



  • A symbol is modulated on to orthogonal sub-carrier.
  • Modulation is done by using IFFT.
  • High spectral efficiency.
  • Demodulation is done by using FFT. ( Demodulation of received signal ) 
  • Low efficiency to time synchronization techniques.
  • Better resultant quality of fading.
  • Very sensitive to time-frequency synchronization.
  • Simplified channel equalization.
  • Immunity to intersymbol interference. 
  • No inter-carrier guard band.
  • Orthogonal carrier and control overlapping band.
  • Improved quality of narrowband interference.
  • Robust against intersymbol interference.
  • Fading caused by multi-path propagation.
  • Decoding and de-interleaving. 
  • Orthogonality is maintained during channel transmission.

Applications of OFDM

OFDM technique is the most prominent technique in a recent era so now we can check some applications of OFDM one by one below. 

 Applications of OFDM : 
  • Digital audio broadcasting
  • Digital video broadcasting over the terrestrial network. Digital terrestrial television broadcasting. In this broadcasting, 2000 to 8000 subcarriers are used.  
  • UMTS
  • Wireless LANs. OFDM is used in HIPERLAN phase II which supports 20 Mbit/s in propagation environments with delay spreads up to 1 Âµsecond. 
  • HDTV
  • The optical wireless communication system
  • Uni-polar communication system
  • Wireless ATM transmission system
  • Digital video broadcasting
  • Wireless LAN networks
  • UMTS terrestrial radio access
  • Some ultra wideband system
  • Power line communication
  • Very high-speed digital subscriber lines
  • Point to point and point to multipoint application
  • The flash OFDM cellular system
  • Mobile broadband wireless access
  • Used in Wi-Fi and WiMAX
  • High bit rate digital subscriber lines
  • A global standard for asymmetric subscriber line
  • Metropolitan area network standard also include in OFDM
  • 5.3.1 HIPERLAN/2
  • IEEE 802.16 Broadband
  • IEEE 802.11a and IEEE 802.11g
  • Used in LTE and LTE advanced

Advantages and disadvantages of OFDM

OFDM stands for orthogonal frequency division multiplexing, it has been used in many high data rates wireless communication system because of the many advantages it provides. This article gives information about the advantages and disadvantages of OFDM  to know more details about it.

Advantages of OFDM :
  • More resistance to frequency selective fading than single carrier system because it divides to the overall channel into multiple narrowband signals that are affected individually as flat fading sub-channels
  • Interference appearing on a channel may be bandwidth limited and in this way will not affect all the sub-channels this not all the data is lost
  • Very resilient to inter-symbol and inter-frame interference
  • It is possible to recover symbols lost due to the frequency selectivity of the channel and  also a narrow-band interference using adequate channel coding and interleaving
  • Maor efficient use of the available spectrum using close-spaced overlapping sub-carriers
  • Using multiple sub-channels, the channel equalization becomes much simpler that is cause issue with a CDMA method
  • Simple implementation by the mean of FFT
  • Eliminates ISI and IFI by the use of a cyclic prefix
  • Provide good protection against co-channel interference
  • High transmission bit rates
  • A chance to cancel any channel so it affected by fading device
  • Low sensitivity to time synchronization error
  • Facilitates single frequency networks ( SFN )
  • Tuned subchannel receiver filters are not required
  • It is able to protect  total energy loss at the frequency domain
Disadvantages of OFDM :
  • Require highly linear amplifier
  • Sensitive to carrier offset and drift
  • Sensitive to frequency synchronization problems
  • Inter-carrier interference between the sub-carrier
  • Loss of efficiency caused by cyclic prefix or guard of interval 
  • High power transmitter amplifier needs linearization
  • High peak to average power ratio
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High voltage DC transmission

It is well known that electric power generated in power plants is transmitted to the load centre on three phase ac transmission lines. However, for bulk power transmission over long distance, High voltage DC transmission line are preferred. First let we talk about full form of HVDC.

The additional cost of converting and inverting equipment makes HVDC transmission uneconomical for low power supply over short distance. However for large power transmission over long distance, HVDC turn out be economical. As a result, HVDC links are being used worldwide at power levels of several gigawatts with the use of thyristor valve.

How does HVDC system work ?

As we know that when AC power is generated which can be converted into DC by using the rectifier. so in end of the line there are two terminals inverter and rectifier. rectifier convert AC to DC while the inverter convert DC to AC.

The power transmitted remains same at the receiving end of the line. In substation system having more then two converter stations and one transmission line is called as a two terminal DC system. DC is transmitted over long distance because  it decreases the losses and improve the overall efficiency. If more than two converter and interconnecting DC terminal lines called as multi-terminal DC substation.
HVDC transmission possesses the following advantages over AC transmission system

Advantages of high voltage DC transmission :
  • Fault clearance in HVDC is faster, therefore DC transmission system possesses improved transient stability
  • Size of conductor in DC transmission can be reduced as there is no skin effect
  • Cost is less as compare to the AC transmission
  • HVDC tower are less costly 
  • No requirement of reactive power
  • No system stability problem
  • HVDC require less phase to phase and ground to ground clearance
  • Require less number of conductor for same power transfer
  • Improve line loading capacity
  • HVDC is preferred as it requires no charging current 
  • Power loss is reduced  with DC just because of fewer numbers of lines are required for power transmission
  • HVDC is more flexible system

Disadvantages of high voltage DC transmission :
  • Expenses inverters with limited overload capacity
  • HVDC is less relaible
  • IN HVDC very accurate and lossless power flows through DC link
  • The disadvantages of HVDC are in conversion, switching, control, mainatance
  • Lower availability than AC system
  • HVDC  is very complicted 
  • circuit breaker are used in HVDC for circuit breaking, and Inverter and rectifier terminals will generate harmonics which can be reduced by using active filters, which are also very expensive
  • HVDC does not have transformers for changing the voltage levels
  • Heat loss occurs in converters substation

HVDC advantages and disadvantages

HVDC links are being used worldwide at power levels of several gigawatts with the use of thyristor valve. So here this article gives information about the advantages and disadvantages of HVDC to know more details about it. 

Advantages of high voltage DC transmission :

  • Fault clearance in HVDC is faster, therefore the DC transmission system possesses improved transient stability
  • Size of the conductor in DC transmission can be reduced as there is no skin effect
  • Cost is less as compared to the AC transmission
  • HVDC tower is less costly 
  • No requirement of reactive power
  • No system stability problem
  • HVDC require less phase to phase and ground to ground clearance
  • Require less number of conductor for same power transfer
  • Improve line loading capacity
  • To ac system at different frequencies can be interconnected through HVDC transmission lines
  • HVDC is preferred as it requires no charging current 
  • Power loss is reduced  with DC just because of fewer numbers of lines are required for power transmission
  • HVDC is a more flexible system

Disadvantages of high voltage DC transmission :

  • Expenses inverters with limited overload capacity
  • HVDC is less reliable
  • IN HVDC very accurate and lossless power flows through DC link
  • The disadvantages of HVDC are in conversion, switching, control, maintenance
  • Lower availability than the AC system
  • HVDC  is very complicated 
  • The circuit breaker is used in HVDC for circuit breaking, and Inverter and rectifier terminals will generate harmonics which can be reduced by using active filters, which are also very expensive
  • HVDC does not have transformers for changing the voltage levels
  • Heat loss occurs in converters substation

Advantages and disadvantages of SMPS

The disadvantages of linear power supplies (LPS), such as lower efficiency, transformers used are heavier and large, more power is wasted in the form of heat, dissipation is more etc. Overcome by implication of SMPS. So now let us talk about the advantages and disadvantages of SMPS to know more details about SMPS. first, let us check it out full form of SMPS

Advantages of SMPS :
  • The efficiency is high as compare to LPS, more than 80 to 90%
  • The device is used in SMPS is compact and very small in size
  • The manufacturing cost is reduced
  • Provide isolation between multiple output
  • Low power wastage
  • Less heat generation
  • High power density
  • Flexible technology
  • Lower weight
  • Providing the required number of voltage
  • Strong anti-interference
  • Reduced the harmonic feedback into the supply mains
  • Wide ac input voltage
Disadvantages of SMPS :
  • Greater circuit complexity
  • Expert design are required
  • High frequency electrical noise
  • It can be used step down regulator 
  • The noise to present due to high-frequency switching
  • It produces electromagnetic interference
  • Harmonic distortion
  • Only one output voltage
  • Expensive compared to LPS
The main advantages of SMPS over conventional linear power supply are as under :
  • SMPS is less sensitive to input voltage variations
  • For the same power rating, SMPS is of smaller size, lighter in weight, and possesses higher efficiency because of its high-frequency operation.
The disadvantages of SMPS are as under :
  • SMPS has higher output ripple and its regulation in worse
  • SMPS is a source of both electromagnetic and radio interference due to the high-frequency switching
  • Control of radio frequency noise requires the use of filters on both input and output of SMPS

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What is smps in computer

The disadvantages of linear power supplies (LPS), such as lower efficiency, transformers used are heavier and large, more power is wasted in the form of heat, dissipation is more, etc, overcome by implication of SMPS. First, let us know about what is the full form of SMPS. SMPS is used as a controlled switch.

 SMPS is based on the chopper principle. The output of the dc voltage is controlled by varying the duty cycle of chopper by PWM or in FM techniques. The circuit configuration used for SMPS can be classified into three broad categories, namely flyback, half-bridge, full-bridge.

 Now let us talk about why go in for SMPS?
  • An ac to dc rectifier operates at a supply frequency of 50 Hz. In order to obtain almost negligible ripple I the dc output voltage, physical size if the filter circuit is required large.
  • This makes the dc power supply inefficient, bulky and weighty.
  • On the other hand, SMPS also work like dc chopper. 
Different kinds :

 1. Full bridge converter :

 The circuit diagram for a full bridge SMPS is shown in the figure. It consists of an uncontrolled rectifier, four power MOSFETs are used, a transformer with mid tap secondary, two diodes and LC circuit, the function of the control circuit is to sense the output load voltage and to decide about the duty ratio of MOSFETs.

Full bridge converter operates with minimum voltage and current stress on the power MOSFET. It is therefore very popular for high power application above 750 W.
Full bridge converter

2. Half-bridge converter :

The circuit diagram of the half-bridge converter shown in the figure. It consists an uncontrolled rectifier, basically two capacitor C1 and C2, two power MOSFETs M1 and M2, and only one transformer with a mid tap on the secondary side, two diodes D1 and D2 and filter components L and C.

When M1 is totally off, the open-circuit voltage across the M1 terminal is Vs. When M2 is off, as before Voc = Vs. For, half-bridge converters is, therefore, preferred over push-pull converters. 

Half-bridge converter
3. Flyback SMPS :

The circuit configuration for the flyback converter is shown in the figure. It consists of a power MOSFET M1, a transformer for isolation purpose, diode D, capacitor C, and load. An uncontrolled rectifier converts as to dc output which is to flyback SMPS as shown in the figure.

Output power is very less(<100 W) when we are using flyback converter types SMPS and frequently used in low power application.

Flyback SMPS


Advantages  of  SMPS :
  • The efficiency is high as compared to LPS, more than 80 to 90%
  • The device is used in SMPS is compact and very small in size
  • The manufacturing cost is reduced
  • Provide isolation between multiple outputs
  • Low power wastage
  • Less heat generation
  • Lower weight
  • Providing the required number of voltage
  • Reduced the harmonic feedback into the supply mains
  • Wide ac input voltage
Disadvantages of SMPS :
  • Greater circuit complexity
  • The expert design is required
  • The noise to present due to high-frequency switching
  • It produces electromagnetic interference

What is dwell time in wireless communication

The time period for which a call is maintained in a cellular region is called dwell time.

There is some basic factor that influences the dwell time are :
  • propagation
  • Interference
  • The distance between the subscriber and the base station
As the mobile moves from the serving base station (BS), there will drop the signal level. Therefore, the base station generally monitors and measure the signal level before initiating for continuing with the call in progress.

Advantages and disadvantages of schottky diode

A Schottky diode is used in numerous application where other types of diode will not perform very well. They offer a number of advantages on the other hand limitations are also, listed below to know more details about Schottky diode.

Advantages of Schottky diode :
  • High efficiency
  • Fast recovery time so it can be mostly used in the application of high-speed switching
  • Low junction capacitance
  • The low forward voltage drop
  • It can operate high frequency
  • Schottky diode produces less unwanted noise than P-N junction diode
  • High current density
  • Low power consumption. 
  • Rapid response to a change in bias 
  • It has a negligible storage time
  • Low switching time
Disadvantages of Schottky diode :
  • A Schottky diode is more expensive. 
  • They operate at low voltages compare to the P-N junction diode
  • These diodes can't withstand much higher voltage without break down
  • These diodes have relatively higher reverse current
  • It gets heated up quickly in practical.

V-I characteristics of P-N junction diode

P-N junction diode is made up of P-type silicon and N-type silicon semiconductor materials. This article gives the characteristics of the P-N junction diode to know more details about the P-N junction diode.
  • When the anode is positive with respect to the cathode, the diode is to be forward biased. From Vs = 0 to cut in voltage, the forward diode current is very small. 
  • Cut in voltage is also known as threshold voltage or turn on voltage.
  • For a lower power diode, current in the forward direction increases first exponentially with voltage and then becomes almost linear.
  • When the cathode is positive with respect to the anode, the diode is said to be reverse biased.
  • In the reverse biased condition, a small reverse current called leakage current.
  • The leakage current is almost independent of the magnitude of reverse voltage until this voltage reaches breakdown voltage.
  • At this reverse breakdown, the voltage remains almost constant but reverse current becomes quite high limited only by the external circuit resistance.
  • A large reverse breakdown voltage, associated with high reverse current, so power is lost and maybe diode is destroyed.
  • This shows that the reverse breakdown of a power diode must be avoided by operating it below the specific peak reverse repetitive voltage.


What is PN junction diode | Symbol | Application | VI characteristics

A P-N junction diode is a silicon. The P-N junction diode is the basic element for semiconductor diodes. One of the terminals is doped with p-type879 material and the other with N-type of material. The schematic symbol shown in the figure, P-N junction diode is made up of P-type silicon and N-type silicon semiconductor materials.

P-N junction diode is used in a variety of applications like LASER, solar cell, LED, digital logic design, DC power supply, etc. This article also gives many more application listed below.

Symbol of PN junction diode :

Symbol of PN junction diode

Application of PN junction diode :
  • Light-emitting diode application
  • Laser
  • It can be also used solar cells
  • It used in the detector as well as the demodulator circuit
  • It is used in many circuit or diode-like, a switching diode, Zener diode, PIN photo-diode, varactor diode
  • It is used as switches in digital logic design
  • It can be also used p-n junction photodiodes
  • It can be used as a rectifier in DC power supply
  • It is also used clipping circuit
  • It can be also used computers, radios, radars as wave shaping circuit
V-I characteristics of PN junction diode :
  • When the anode is positive with respect to the cathode, the diode is to be forward biased. From Vs = 0 to total cut-in voltage, the forward diode current is very small. 
  • Cut in voltage is also known as threshold voltage or called turn-on voltage.
  • For a lower power diode, the current in the forward direction increases first exponentially with voltage and then becomes almost linear.
  • When the cathode is positive with respect to the anode, the diode is said to be reverse biased.
  • In the reverse biased condition, a small reverse current called as a leakage current.
  • The leakage current is almost independent of the magnitude of reverse voltage until this voltage reaches breakdown voltage.
  • At this reverse breakdown, the voltage remains almost constant but reverse current becomes quite high limited only by the external circuit resistance.
  • A large reverse breakdown voltage, associated with high reverse current, so power is lost and maybe diode is destroyed.
  • This shows that the reverse breakdown of a power diode must be avoided by operating it below the specific peak reverse repetitive voltage shown in the figure.

VI characteristics of PN junction diode
V-I characteristics of a P-N junction diode

 This article also gives the various types of diode listed below:

Application of PN junction diode

A lower diode is called a signal diode, it is a PN junction device. A high power diode called power diode is also called as a PN junction device but with constructional features somewhat different from a signal diode. The intricacies in constructing power diode arise from the need to make them suitable for high voltage and some high current applications. Let us have a deep insight into the application about the P-N junction diode to know more details about the P-N junction diode.

The PN junction diode some important applications :

  • PN junction diode is used as a more triple, voltage doubler and quadruples in voltage multiplier circuit.
  • They are used as a switch in many electronics circuits.
  • They are used in power supply.
  • This diode can be used by many circuits rectifiers, varactor for voltage-controlled oscillators.
  • While PN junction diode produced light when biased with a current, so it is used in light-emitting diode application.
  • This diode can be also used for another diode called a light amplification stimulation emission of radiation.
  • In power electronics engineering, it can be used in solar cells.
  • It used in the detector as well as the demodulator circuit so it can be used as a detector for the demodulation circuit.
  • In digital electronics, this diode can be used as switches in digital logic design.
  • It can be used in PN junction photodiodes applications.
  • This diode can be used as a rectifier in the DC power supply.
  • While we are using the clipping circuit, this diode can be used to clip the portion of AC.
  • They are used as clamper to change the reference voltage.
  • Zener diode most commonly used in stabilizing circuits.
  • It can be used as a varactor diode for use in the voltage-controlled tunning circuit as may be found in radio and TV receivers.
  • The voltage across the PN junction biased is used to create temperature sensors and reference voltages.
  • This diode can be used as voltage multipliers to increase the output voltage.
  • It can be used as a signal diode in communication circuits.
  • These diodes must be used in various daily life applications like computers, radios, radars as wave shaping circuits.
  • It is used in many circuits or diode-like, a switching diode, Zener diode, PIN photo-diode, varactor diode.
There are many different types of PN junction diode, let here we have to also cover the application of  various diodes:

So guys if you like our post or you think you have to learn a lot from this PN junction diode and their application in detailed please share and comments below. Thanks and stay connected with ecstuff4u.com

Power semiconductor devices

Silicon controlled rectifier called SCR was first introduced in 1957 as a power semiconductor device the same way other semiconductor devices used as switches or rectifier electronic circuits called switch-mode power supplies. This device is also called a power device or some time it will be used in the integrated circuit, called power ICs.

Most of these semiconductor devices are listed below and it along with device and present advantages is maximum ratings.
  1. Diode - Voltage or current rating - 5000 V/ 5000 A
  2. Full form of SCR(silicon controlled rectifier) - Voltage or current rating - 7000 V/ 5000 A
  3. LASCR called (light-activated SCR) - Voltage or current rating - 6000 V/ 3000 A
  4. ASCR/RCT called (asymmetrical SCR / reverse conducting thyristor) -Voltage or current rating - 2500 V/ 400 A
  5. Full form of GTO called (gate turn off thyristor) - Voltage or current rating - 5000 V/ 3000 A
  6. Full form of SITH called (static induction  thyristor) - Voltage or current rating - 2500 V/ 500 A
  7. Full form of MCT called (Mos controlled thyristor) - Voltage or current rating - 1200 V/ 40 A
  8. Full form of BJT called (bipolar junction transistor) -Voltage or current rating - 1400 V/ 400 A
  9. SIT called (static induction transistor)) - Voltage or current rating - 1200 V/ 300 A
  10. Full form of IGBT called (insulated gate bipolar transistor) - Voltage or current rating - 1200 V/ 500 A
Based on,

  • Turn on and turn off characteristic 
  • Gate signal requirement
  • Degree of controllability
The power semiconductor devices can be classified as under the following category

1. Diode: This is uncontrolled rectifying devices. Their on and off-state are controlled by a power supply.

 2. Thyristor: These have controlled turn on by a gate signal. after thyristor is on they remain latched in on state due to internal regenerative action and gate loses control. These can be turn off by the power circuit.

 3. Controllable switches: These devices are turned on and turn off by the application of control signals. The devices which behave as controllable switches areas like BJT, MOSFET, GTO, SITH, SIT, and MCT. 

So the device like GTO, BJT, SIT, SITH, MCT, SCR, IGBT is unidirectional current devices, whereas RCT and Triac posses bi-directional current capability.

V-I characteristics of schottky diode

The V-I characteristics of schottky diode is shown in the figure. V-I characteristics of schottky diode is almost similar to the P-N junction.

  • In schottky diode the forward voltage drop is very low compare to the similar to P-N junction diode.
  • The forward voltage drop of shottky diode is 0.2 to 0.3 volts, It generally made up of silicon.
  • V-I characteristics of schottky diode are very steeper compare to the V-I characteristics of  P-N junction diode.
  • As compare to silicon diode the reverse saturation current occurs at a very low voltage.

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